Martial arts

Martial Arts, various kinds of fighting arts, with or without weapons, most of which originated in East Asia. Martial arts are now practiced throughout the world. About 100 million people participate in the martial arts as a means of self-defense, physical fitness, mental tranquility, and competition. There are about 200 distinct martial arts, and within each one are specific schools called styles or systems. These styles number in the thousands.

Despite the array of martial arts and styles, most of them share common techniques, and so they can be organized into broad categories that facilitate understanding. The primary way of classifying martial arts is by the basic physical technique they use: striking or grappling.

The striking technique, technically referred to as percussive, uses blows with the hands, elbows, feet, knees, and head. Such popular martial arts as karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do fall under this category.

Grappling arts, on the other hand, primarily employ throwing, locking, and wrestling techniques. These arts seek to neutralize aggressive action by gaining control over an adversary without necessarily striking the person. The most popular grappling arts are jujutsu, judo, and aikido.

The martial arts can also be divided into those that prohibit weapons and those that require them. In judo, for example, competitors use only their bodies, but in many styles of kung fu, weapons represent an essential part of the basic training. Common weapons used in martial arts include swords, staffs, and spears made of wood or metal. Firearms are never used.

Martial arts can also be divided by function and philosophy into traditional and nontraditional, according to the way they are taught. Traditional teachers emphasize self-improvement, whereas non-traditionalists emphasize self-defense. When instructing their students, traditionalists focus on three priorities, in the following order: spiritual development, discipline, and aesthetic form. Nontraditional instruction accents combat, discipline, and spiritual development. Both schools of thought offer advantages to students, encouraging the cultivation of such traits as self-confidence, which can then be successfully carried over and applied to everyday life.

Rafting

Whitewater Rafting, recreational activity in which people row or paddle an inflatable raft down a fast-running, turbulent river. The term whitewater refers to the burbling foam created when fast-moving water spills over and around rocks or other obstructions.

Whitewater rafting has become a popular recreational pastime around the world, especially in the United States. It offers the thrill and challenge of threading between rocks and over waves in a small, open boat. Most rafting trips provide an exciting ride, with the raft plunging and bucking and occasionally dousing the occupants with water. Rafting is also a convenient way to travel into beautiful, remote areas that may otherwise be difficult to reach.

Because it has numerous safety issues and logistical demands, whitewater rafting is primarily done by commercial services that offer trips for paying customers. These excursions range from one-hour thrill rides to three-week expeditions. Whitewater runs are selected primarily for the size and variety of rapids, as well as the beauty of the surrounding countryside. Logistical considerations—such as convenient areas to put in and take out the rafts and suitable camping spots along the way—also play a role.

There are two basic kinds of whitewater rafts: oar boats and paddle boats. In an oar boat, passengers merely hang on while the guide, sitting in the center of the boat and typically facing downstream, maneuvers the raft with two long oars. No special skill or knowledge is required of the passengers, who are essentially just along for the ride. However, during a large wave or heavy rapids, they may be called upon to quickly shift their weight to the high side of the boat (high-siding) to keep it from flipping over.

In a paddle boat, passengers are part of the crew. Working as a team under the command of the guide, everyone vigorously paddles to propel and steer the raft. The guide’s commands, often shouted over the roar of rushing water, include “Forward!” “Backpaddle!” and “Stop!” To turn the raft, the guide shouts “Left!” (in which case paddlers on the left side backpaddle, while those on the right paddle forward) and “Right!” (vice versa). The front paddler on each side of the raft sets the cadence, while the paddlers behind synchronize their strokes to the leaders’. Novice paddlers can usually pick up the basics quickly enough to negotiate easy rapids, but to get through large, powerful rapids safely, paddlers must have well-practiced skills as well as reasonable upper-body strength and endurance. In all cases, teamwork and coordination are essential. A more recent development is the hybrid oar-and-paddle boat, in which the guide rows while everyone else paddles. Oar-and-paddle boats, when operated by a competent group, are exceptionally maneuverable for their size.

Most whitewater rafters go on half-day or one-day trips, in which the thrill of “shooting the rapids” is the primary focus. Multi-day raft trips into remote areas, however, expand the focus to the broader outdoor experience. Rafters stop each night at a camping spot on a beach or level area along the shore. While the guides set up tents and prepare dinner, rafters may hike, fish, swim, or watch wildlife.

Automobile

        Automobile Racing, sport in which drivers race specially designed automobiles over tracks or courses of differing lengths, designs, and constructions. The competition tests the skills of the drivers, the speed capabilities of the vehicles, and the endurance of both. Originally consisting of occasional challenges among wealthy individuals in the United States and continental Europe, automobile racing has evolved into an international year-round professional sport that is one of the most popular spectator attractions in the world.

   One of the most important issues in auto racing is spectator and driver safety. The sport has always been dangerous, with every innovation to increase speed also ratcheting up the level of danger. Unfortunately, although some safety measures—such as fire control and better helmets—have been developed in response to accidents, the innovations did not stem the tide of deaths. One study done in 2001 estimated that, at all levels of the sport, there were more than 250 racing-related deaths in the United States since 1990. In particular, the deaths of several high-profile drivers—Ayrton Senna in 1994, Adam Petty in 2000, and Dale Earnhardt in 2001—highlighted the need for mandatory head restraints and other safety controls, and the governing bodies of the sport began to act. Spectators who are killed when parts of cars fly into the grandstands also remain a concern for the sport.

      Another problem in automobile racing both in the United States and internationally is the immense cost of competing. Driver salaries have skyrocketed and the cost of building a car capable of winning is often enormous, sometimes into the millions of dollars. To win a racing series, such as the Indy car championship or the Winston Cup, requires a fortune for salaries, construction, engine rental and maintenance, and other related costs. Modern racing teams require large corporate sponsorships along with lucrative television deals to have a chance to win. These sources of revenue can suddenly dry up if the overall economy sours or other problems develop, such as the governmental restrictions on tobacco advertising that have hurt the sport financially in recent years.

     Another concern is the rapid rate of technological change in automobile racing. Early in the sport's development the race cars changed gradually, often with years intervening between significant innovations. Over time, however, it became increasingly common for competitors to actively seek technological superiority. This can be very costly, as research, technical staff, and implementing change itself (requiring the physical construction of new cars or components) add a great deal to the cost of running a race car. If a team does not keep up with the cutting-edge technology, however, it may be sacrificing a chance for victory. Such challenges will continue to be part of automobile racing in the years ahead.

Tennis

            Tennis, game played with a racket and a ball by two (as in singles) or four (as in doubles) competitors, on a rectangular court with a net strung between the midpoints of the longer sides of the court. Tennis may be played indoors or outdoors. The game ranks as one of the most popular spectator and participation sports in the world, with fans and competitors in more than 100 countries. Originally called lawn tennis to distinguish it from the sport of court tennis, from which it was derived, the game is now commonly known as tennis.

            Tennis was first played professionally in 1926, when American promoter Charles C. Pyle organized a traveling tour for which the players were paid. Professionals were barred, however, from competing in tournaments sanctioned by national tennis organizations, including the prestigious “grand slam” events. During the next 40 years, many but not all of the top male players built reputations in amateur competition before turning professional and earning money playing exhibitions and occasional tournaments. Very few women turned professional during this time.

                    In 1968 the majority of tournaments became open—that is, eligible to both amateur and professional players. After that, professional players quickly came to dominate tournament tennis. To prevent players from going pro too early, minimum age requirements for the professional tours were established. These regulations are sometimes altered, but current guidelines decree that men under the age of 14 are not permitted to play professionally, and from the ages of 14 to 16, they may only play a limited number of pro tournaments. Women under the age of 14 cannot play professionally, and may only participate in a limited number of pro tournaments until they reach the age of 18.

                    There are three major organizations that govern professional tennis. The ITF has jurisdiction over the four so-called grand slam tournaments: the Australian Open in Melbourne, Australia; the French Open in Paris; the Lawn Tennis Championships, commonly called Wimbledon, in London; and the U.S. Open in New York City. The ITF also governs the Davis Cup (men) and the Fed Cup (women), annual international competitions held between national teams. The ATP (formerly the Association of Tennis Professionals), located in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, has jurisdiction over the men’s professional events except for the grand slam tournaments. The Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) Tour, located in Saint Petersburg, Florida, governs women’s professional tennis.

   Other major tennis championships include the Davis Cup and the Fed Cup. The Davis Cup, started in 1900, is an annual international men’s competition held between national teams. The Fed Cup, started in 1963, is the women’s equivalent to the Davis Cup. Countries play each other throughout the year in contests known as ties, and the winning country advances to the next round. Davis Cup and Fed Cup competitions involve four singles matches and one doubles match. The team that wins at least three out of the five matches is the winner. Tennis is also an Olympic sport. It was first played in the Olympic Games from 1896 until 1924. After a long hiatus, Olympic play was renewed at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea.

Cricket

   Cricket (game), a high-scoring outdoor bat-and-ball game played between teams of 11 players that originated in England over 500 years ago. A team sport exceeded in popularity worldwide only by soccer and basketball, cricket can be found in over 120 countries. The game has been played in the United States since the early 18th century.

             Cricket is played on a large, circular, grassy area called a ground. Cricket grounds can be any size, but those used in professional cricket are usually between 114 m and 160 m (375 ft and 525 ft) in diameter. Most of the action in cricket takes place in the center of the ground on a manicured strip of grass, 20 m (66 ft) long and about 3 m (10 ft) wide, called the pitch. At each end of the pitch, set upright in the ground, are three wooden poles called stumps. Collectively the stumps are known as a wicket. The wicket is 71 cm (28 in) high and 23 cm (9 in) wide. Resting in grooves on top of the stumps are two small pieces of wood called bails. Four feet in front of and parallel to the wicket is a long white chalk line called the popping crease. Running between the two wickets, 2.7 m (8.7 ft) apart, are two other white lines called the return creases.

              In general, cricket is very similar to baseball. The cricket batter stands in front of one wicket and tries to score runs by hitting balls that the bowler (the cricket “pitcher”) throws to him from the opposite wicket. In specifics, however, the two games are very different. Cricket has no foul territory, no balls or strikes, and the batter does not have to run when he hits the ball. The cricket batter also has a partner who stands at the opposite wicket with a bat. If the batter hits the ball and decides to run, the two players then simultaneously run to their opposite wickets. Once they are both over the popping crease at the opposite wicket, one run is scored. If the batter hits the ball far enough, he and his partner can continue to run back and forth from wicket to wicket, scoring another run each time they switch wickets. If the batter hits a fly ball out of the ground, much like a “home run,” his team gets six automatic runs. If the batter hits a ground ball out of the playing area, the team gets four automatic runs. Unlike baseball, the batter does not come out after scoring a run but continues to hit until he is put out.

                           The fielding team can get the batter out one of four main ways: (1) the bowler can throw the ball past the batter, hit the wicket, and knock off at least one bail (called an out bowled); (2) the batter blocks a ball from hitting the wicket with his body, even unintentionally (out leg before wicket, or LBW); (3) the batter hits the ball and any fielder catches it on the fly (out caught); and (4) a fielder can get the ball while the batters are running, throw it, hit the wicket, and knock off at least one bail before the batter crosses the popping crease (out run out).The bowler in cricket can take a run-up and can throw the ball to the batter on the bounce as well as on the fly, but he must keep his arm straight while throwing. He must also stay behind the popping crease and within the return creases at his wicket until he releases the ball. To give both batters a chance to hit, the bowling direction is reversed every six pitches (called an over). After the first bowler has thrown six times from one wicket, another fielder takes the ball and throws six times from the other wicket. This change of bowling direction continues every six pitches throughout the game.

                                      A cricket game can last one or, at the most, two innings. This is because the fielding team must get out 10 of the 11 players on the batting team before they can come to bat. When the fielding team comes up, they also bat through their entire order. Whichever team has the most runs after each team has batted once is the winner. In a two-innings game, each team would bat and field twice.

Bowling

                                                      Bowling

Bowling is one ofthe oldest and most widely played of the world's games. The earliest record of the bowling goes back 7,000 years to ancient Egyptwhere a round object ressembling a bowling ball, and marble baars, resemblingbowling pins, have been found in the ruins of a pyramids.Participants roll the bowling ball(of  appropriaaate weight)down the lane in attempt to knock down all the pins at the other end. Power, steadiness and skills in the manner of rolling the ball are all very important.

Bowling, indoor game in which players roll balls along a runway called a lane or alley, attempting to knock down ten pins. Sometimes called tenpins, bowling is one of the most popular sports in the world.

The sport’s governing body, the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (International Bowling Federation, or IBF), has more than 120 member countries. The IBF estimates that more than 100 million people bowl annually. The United States alone is home to more than 6,000 local bowling associations that sponsor tournaments for more than 3 million bowlers. More than 10,000 bowling tournaments are conducted worldwide every year. (This article covers the indoor sport of bowling. For details on outdoor bowling, see Lawn Bowls.)

Billiard

                                                          Billiards

  In billiards, participants will play on ful-sized billiards tables using leeeathers tipped rod to propel the balls acordingly into the pockets for scores. Billiard is a game of skills and strategies which depend on the techniques of the cueisst to attain high scores.

Billiards is played on a specially designed surface referred to as a table. Lining the raised sides of the table are rubber cushions from which the balls rebound when struck. Tables range in size from 0.9 to 1.8 m (3 to 6 ft) wide and from 1.8 to 3.6 m (6 to 12 ft) long. The level table surface, called the bed, is most often made of slate and is covered with a finely woven fabric, usually green in color. A typical cue is 145 cm (57 in) long, weighs 538 g (19 oz), and has a tip diameter of 1.2 cm (0.5 in). Balls, once made of ivory, are now composed of a hard compound, usually a cast phenolic resin, and range in size from about 5 cm (2 in) to 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter. The white ball, which the player is allowed to strike with the tip of the cue, is called the cue ball. Other balls, which are usually colored, are called object balls.

Two styles of billiards play are most common. One requires tables with openings, called pockets, at the corners and at the midpoints of the long sides. The other requires tables without openings. On a pocket table, the goal is to drive object balls into pockets with the cue ball. On a pocketless table, points are scored by caroming (bouncing) the cue ball off one ball into another, sometimes requiring that the cue ball make contact with a cushion. Carom games on pocketless tables are most popular in continental Europe, Latin America, and Asia. Pocket games, which include pool, predominate in English-speaking countries.

The international governing body of billiards is the World Confederation of Billiard Sports, located in Basel, Switzerland. The ruling body of the sport in the United States is the Billiard Congress of America, with headquarters in Colorado City, Colorado. In the United States billiards is one of the most popular participant sports.